Concepts and Definitions of Mental Illness

Concepts and Definitions of Mental Illness INTRODUCTION The conceptualisation and definition of what is meant by the term ‘mental illness’ is not a straight forward task. This is because of two key reasons. Firstly, a given definition of mental illness will be significantly affected by the specific characteristics of the source of the definition. For example, a member of the general public would be likely to provide a definition which is significantly different from a person who worked within the legal profession. The perceptions of the member of the general public are likely to have been influenced by factors such as the media and their experiences involving people who are viewed as being mentally ill. In contrast, the legal profession would be influenced by the guidelines and recommendations set out by law (e.g. the Mental Health Act 1983 and subsequent amendments). The definition used within the health care profession is likely to differ again from these alternative approaches Such differences are likely to exist within th ese categories. For example, the definition used by a Psychiatrist may not be the same as that which is used by a General Practitioner. Therefore, whenever one is discussing ‘what is meant by mental illness’, it is important to note the significant impact which is made by the perspectives and experiences of those providing the definition. For the purposes of the following discussion, the definitions which are employed within the health care industry will be predominantly focussed upon but references will be made to the perceptions of other relevant groups. The second reason why the definition of ‘mental illness’ is not a simple one is because of the wide range of different symptoms, behaviours and personal characteristics which may be perceived as signs of mental illness. A person may be perceived as mentally ill if they claim to hear voices, experience prolonged episodes of depression, are addicted to drugs or even because they are extremely scared of spiders. These wide range of symptoms ensure that it is difficult to derive a definition of mental illness which encompasses all of the relevant aspects and issues. In terms of behaviours, a person who is going through a period of extreme optimism may be viewed as being a very positive person by some and as experiencing a manic episode by others. Therefore, it is difficult to clearly define the boundaries as to when behaviour moves into the realm of being a sign of mental illness. Finally, the personal characteristics of the person being observed are likely to influence whet her or not they are perceived as being mentally ill. For example, a young person who is forgetful may be viewed as simply having a poor memory. However, if an elderly person was to perform the same episodes of memory loss, they may be more likely to be viewed as suffering from the early signs of Alzheimer’s Disease. Therefore, the definition of mental illness is made more difficult by the range of applicable symptoms, the problems associated with clearly defining boundaries and the effect of the personal characteristics of the person being observed. The following review will discuss these relevant issues and highlight the key elements of the debate regarding ‘What is Mental Illness?’ THE CONCEPT OF MENTAL ILLNESS This section will consider the statistical approach to mental illness along with the importance of social desirability. The roles played by cultural and societal factors in determining what is labelled as mental illness will then be discussed. Finally a theoretical definition of what is meant by mental illness will be provided. 2.1 THE STATISTICAL APPROACH TO MENTAL ILLNESS The more traditional approach to mental illness was based on the concept of how rare a given person’s characteristics, thoughts and behaviours were viewed as being. Somebody who is acting very differently and in a way which is rarely seen, had the potential to being perceived as mentally ill. For example, the extreme behaviour and actions performed by Adolf Hitler would lead many to claim that he was ‘insane’ However, This statistical approach to mental illness can be criticised in two ways. Firstly, the extreme behaviours of somebody like Picasso are viewed as talent and ability rather than as being a sign of mental illness. Rarity, it could be argued, is only relevant when it is combined with behaviour which is socially undesirable. The statistical approach can be criticised in a second way. There are certain categories of mental illness which are not that rare. For example, a significant number of people in the world suffer with depression. One could not argue that depression is not a mental illness merely based on the theory that there are too many people suffering with it. Thus the traditional statistical approach was shown to not be a comprehensive and appropriate conceptualisation of mental illness. 2.2 CULTURAL AND SOCIETAL FACTORS IN MENTAL ILLNESS Subsequent approaches to mental illness have focussed on the concept of ‘deviance’ (Maher 1966). This highlights the key role which is played by cultural and societal factors in determining what is labelled as mental illness. The case of homosexuality provides a good demonstration of this point. In previous centuries, performing homosexual acts was seen as a sign of mental illness by both society and the mental health profession. However, over subsequent years homosexuality has become a more accepted form of sexual behaviour. Although some people would still view it as a mental illness, a societal shift appears to have taken place relative to the historical treatment of homosexual people. Heather (1976) argues that there is a moral aspect to mental illness as well as the underlying medical condition. The case of homosexuality outlines this point of view and shows that the concept of mental illness is not a fixed one but rather has the capability to change over time. Szasz (1962) also supported this view and argued that mental illness is as ‘real’ as witch craft was in the past. It is the way in which society perceives mental illness which has a significant impact on what is actually labelled as mental illness. Other cultural aspects have a part to play. Cultural norms regarding a situation are important. For instance, undressing is an acceptable behaviour if one is just about to have a shower However, if one was to undress in the middle of the high street then it would not be seen as acceptable. Similarly there are developmental norms within given cultures. Temper tantrums are expected when a child is around two years of age. However, if the same behaviour was performed by a 30 year old then it is likely that this would be seen as unacceptable and potentially viewed as a sign of mental illness. This section has shown that cultural and societal factors have an important influence on what is seen as mental illness. A given behaviour i n one community may be acceptable but the exact same behaviour in a different community may be seen as a sign of mental illness. 2.3 DEFINING MENTAL ILLNESS Johoda’s (1958) Framework of mental illness will be outlined here as well as the importance of distress and consequences. CATEGORIES OF MENTAL ILLNESS This section of the review will outline three of the more prevalent categories of mental illness. This discussion will enable a more comprehensive understanding of what is meant by mental illness. Within each category, an example of a mental illness will be provided as a further illustration. The first category is Psychosis. A definition of psychosis will be given and the case of Schizophrenia will be discussed as an example. The second broad category to be considered is Substance Abuse.. The case of people being addicted to recreational drugs will be provided as a modern example. The third and final category is Depression. Bipolar Disorder will be discussed as another example of mental illness. For each of these examples, both the causes and different treatments will be briefly outlined. 3.1 PSYCHOSIS The first category of mental illness to be covered in this discussion is Psychosis. The term ‘psychosis’ has been defined as a range of symptoms that can be found within the diagnostic categories of Schizophreniform illness[1] (Gregory 1987). A variety of different experiences can be described as psychotic symptoms. They can be viewed as ‘highly convoluted expressions of everyday experiences (Beck Rector 2000). They include auditory hallucinations (e.g. the patient may hear a voice instructing them to perform certain behaviours), disturbing thoughts (e.g. the patient may become paranoid that they are being targeted by someone) or a distressing inability to distinguish what is ‘reality’. Combinations of these psychotic symptoms are associated with different forms of psychosis, including both Acute and Chronic Schizophrenia. The mental illness which is labelled as ‘Schizophrenia’ will now be outlined in more detail. The symptoms associated with this illness will be outlined along with the different possible causes and treatments. 3.1.1 SCHIZOPHRENIA The term Schizophrenia was first used by Bleuler (1911). It was intended to mean ‘Split Mind’ or ‘Divided Self’. Clare (1976) stated that a person can be said to be suffering from Schizophrenia if they have at least one of the ‘first rank’ symptoms, outlined below, and do not suffer from a diagnosed brain disease. The ‘First Rank’ Schizophrenic symptoms were outlined by Schneider (1959). They are: Passivity experiences and thought disturbances Auditory hallucinations in the third person Primary delusions or false beliefs The potential consequences for a person suffering with Schizophrenia are both serious and wide ranging. One of the most significant problems can be social exclusion. This has the potential to cause great distress on the part of the patient and may lead to a relapse and or increase in their psychotic symptoms. Therefore it is an important issue to consider and one which needs to be carefully addressed by the mental health nurse. 3.1.2 CAUSES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA Information regarding the different causes of Schizophrenia will be added here. 3.1.3 TREATMENTS Many different approaches to the treatment of Schizophrenia and psychotic symptoms have been taken over the past fifty years. These have ranged from Neuroleptic medication and Electro-Convulsive Therapy through to Social Support and Family Therapy. The 1960s witnessed the introduction of Phenothiazine as a medication for treating psychotic symptoms (Fenton 2000). Subsequent research evaluating a purely drug-BASED approached suggested that it may be somewhat limited. For example, research has revealed that between 25 and 50% of patients ON medication still experience persistent psychotic symptoms (Garety et al 2000). Furthermore, even when the patients strictly adhere to their medication regime, they still can experience difficulties (Hogarty Ulrich 1998). Other research has supported the view that patients suffering from psychotic symptoms who are on medication still experience residual symptoms as well as social disabilities such as having difficulty with interpersonal skills (Sand ford Gournay 1996). Such social disabilities can negatively effect the patient’s ability to socially interact and to form relationships. This in turn may help to reinforce the stereotypes that people have regarding the mentally ill and hence contribute to the stigmatisation which they have to suffer. Other alternative and supplementary approaches to the treatment of psychotic symptoms have been offered. For instance, based upon Social Learning Theory, Social Skills Training was developed. This involves training and re-training the motor and interpersonal skills of the patient. However, evaluations of this approach have suggested that any positive effects were short term and that rather than dealing with the psychotic symptoms Social Skills Training merely allows the patient to disguise them and to avoid talking about them (Bradshaw 1995). It may be the case that such training needs to be provided via the mental health nurse and this could be one way in which they could help a patient who is suffering from Schizophrenia. Other treatments based on a psychodynamic approach have also been tested and evaluated in terms of their effectiveness and efficacy for the treatment of psychotic symptoms. It was found that there was no significant effect (Malmberg Fenton 2002). However, other s imilar research suggested that approaches which emphasise problem-solving seem to be more effective than those which simply focused on analysis (Fenton 2000). Such findings have led people to advocate the psychological management of psychotic symptoms whilst also emphasising the possible role that could be played by the mental health nurse in addressing problems which are not effectively overcome by the treatments which are presently given for Schizophrenia. 3.2 SUBSTANCE ABUSE Another major area of mental illness concerns addiction. It has been included here as it is not generally perceived as being a mental illness by the public although it is included within the DSM-IV classification framework. Humans can become addicted to a wide range of different stimuli from gambling and sexual behaviour through to drugs and alcohol consumption. As a result of the prevalence of such addictions, and the potentially serious consequences for the sufferer, the topic of addiction has attracted a considerable amount of research projects and theories from a variety of different theoretical perspectives. The case of people being addicted to recreational drugs will now be provided as an example which is of particular relevant to the modern debates within this field. 3.2.1 ADDICTION TO RECREATIONAL DRUG USE The system within the brain which is activated by the consumption of water and food, as well as during sexual activity, can also respond to the taking of drugs. This is associated with an increase in the release of dopamine from the nucleus accumbens within the brain. This effect has been seen with amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, PCP, opiates and cannabis. Recreational drugs are primarily taken by individuals because of the feelings of euphoria, alterations in sensory perception or to experience an increase in their perceived mental or physical abilities. The issue of recreational drug use has seen a significant amount of coverage within the UK media over the last decade. Through a combination of the prevalence of recreational drug use, the reporting of drug-related deaths and the Government’s deliberations over the relevant legal considerations, a growing interest in the topic has been facilitated. The Government and researchers in the field are working to gain an understand ing of the drugs which are being used, who is using them, how addictive behaviour can develop and what interventions can be taken in order to ensure the safety of those at risk. Research has been conducted which has attempted to quantify the extent to which recreational drugs are used within the United Kingdom. For instance, Wadsworth et al (2004a) conducted a postal survey which revealed that 12% of the respondents had taken elicit recreational drugs within the last year and 7% had done so within the last month. For respondents under the age of 25, it was found that 34% reported having taken recreational drugs in the last year and 19% in the last month. It appears that these figures are increasing and that they have been increasing for a number of years. Bauman Phongsavan (1999) performed a review of the epidemiology of drug use and found that it had been steadily increasing since 1990. They also note, however, that it is difficult to collect accurate data regarding the true extent of recreational drug use as people may be reluctant to admit using drugs and to report the amount that they usually take. 3.22 CAUSES OF ADDICTION An addiction involves a person having a compulsion to take a given substance or perform a specific behaviour. They also have an inability, or find it very difficult to limit their in-take of the substance or to control their performance of the given behaviour. Explanations for the development of an addiction have been proposed from a number of different theoretical perspectives. Some of the more prominent approaches will now be outlined. The biological approach, often cited as ‘the disease model’, suggests that a person has a pre-disposition to becoming addicted to a specific stimuli. This does not necessarily mean that they will become addicted, just that they are vulnerable to it and that the onset of any addiction may occur more easily or rapidly. The Genetic approach suggests that people may inherit addictions from their parents through their genetic make-up. Therefore, the children of a person who is addicted to a specific stimuli are said to be more vulnerable to becoming addicted to that stimuli than would normally be expected. The Sociological perspective emphasises the role played by societal factors in the development of addictions among its members. For instance, within a society which creates a stressful environment, high levels of conflict and which allows significant advertising of products to which people may become addicted, more people with addictions may exist relative to another less s tressful society with lower levels of conflict and advertising. Other explanations have been offered which are fundamentally based on psychological principles. It is these approaches which are being proposed as most appropriate for understanding recreational drug addiction. This approach is fundamentally based on the assumption that human behaviour is learned. Such learning is said to be shaped by positive and negative reinforcements which are associated with performing the behaviour. A negative reinforcement may come in the form of information regarding recreational drugs. Such information may be provided by family members, a friend, the media or through the education system. Through emphasising the potential health-related consequences of recreational drug use, the likelihood of an individual taking recreational drugs should be reduced. Negative reinforcement could also occur through an individual experiencing or witnessing an unpleasant event regarding drugs and involving themselves or their friends. Positive reinforcement regarding recreational drug taking could also be provided by an individual’s friends. It could also occur through witnessing other people taking recreational drugs and focussing on the positive consequences of such behaviour. Perhaps the most powerful positive reinforcement, however, occurs when an individual takes recreational drugs and experiences positive feelings as a result. These positive feelings are likely to go beyond the actual physical reaction to include potential factors such as the individual’s acceptance into a social group or scene and a significant rise in their reputation. All of these positive reinforcements are likely to combine, to varying degrees, to encourage the individual to repeat the recreational drug taking behaviour in the future. The addiction can begin when they become tolerant to such positive feelings. This psychopharmacological approach suggests that this tolerance takes two forms. Firstly, the individual can become Contingency Tolerant This relates to their behaviour after the stimuli and it is this which they become tolerant of rather than the stimuli itself. Therefore, to continue with the recreational drug-taking example, the individual may become tolerant of the positive feeling experienced when taking a drug and hence they go in search of a larger effect by taking more of the same drug or by experimenting with other substances. The second form of tolerance is Conditioned Tolerance This relates to the environment in which the behaviour is performed. The drug taker may experience a positive response when they walk into a night club or to a friends house where drugs are usually taken. It is suggested that the individual with the addiction can become conditioned to consuming the given substance or performing the specific behaviour when in a given environment or situation. 3.3 MOOD DISORDERS The two major conditions which are included within this category of mental illness are Depression and Bipolar Disorder. They are both amongst the more common forms of mental illness. As an example of this kind of mental illness, the case of Bipolar Disorder will now be outlined in more detail. 3.3.1 BIPOLAR DISORDER Bipolar Disorder is a form of psychotic illness which involves the patient experiencing episodes of mania and depression. The periods of mania may involve the patient being in extremely high spirits and exhibiting high levels of optimism. In contrast, depression may witness the patient feeling very low and even suicidal. These extreme moods will be separated by times in which the patient is in a ‘normal’ mood. This cyclical pattern of moods can become more rapid over time (Goodwin Jamison 1990). A distinction can be drawn between two forms of the disorder. Bipolar Disorder 1 is the classic form in which the patient experiences recurrent episodes of mania and depression. Bipolar Disorder 2 involves milder episodes of hypomania and depression. If the patient is witnessed to go through four or more episodes in a year then they can be categorised as suffering from Rapid Cycling Bipolar Disorder. It has been estimated that around 1% of people who are over the age of 18 can suffer with Bipolar Disorder in any one year (Regier et al 1993). As a result of the prevalence of this illness, combined with the potential for it leading to suicide (Brent et al 1993), research has been conducted in order to gain an understanding of the causes and the most effective treatments for Bipolar Disorder. This field of investigation has attracted theorists and researchers from a psychological and sociological perspective. This move has been facilitated by the findings of research which has demonstrated that the traditional approach of medication may not address all of the relevant issues. For example, Ameen Ram (2001) suggest that only 60% of patients respond to Lithium and other Anti-Convulsion medication. Furthermore, they also suggest that just 40% of sufferers remain without relapse for three years after initial treatment despite adhering to their medication regime. Such statistics have ser ved to highlight the potential role that could be played by people working from a psychological and/or sociological perspective. The following discussion will now consider and critically review these perspectives with reference to the causes and then the treatment of Bipolar Disorder. 3.3.2 CAUSES OF BIPOLAR DISORDER A significant amount of research has been conducted to investigate the underlying causes of Bipolar Disorder. The role played by genetics and biological factors does appear to be a significant one. Research has demonstrated that one identical twin can suffer with Bipolar Disorder where as the other identical twin may not. However, they are significantly more likely to suffer with the illness relative to another sibling (Genetics Workgroup 1998). Therefore genetics seem to have a significant impact but it is not the only potential contributory factor. Other psychological and sociological factors have been offered as possible explanations for the development of Bipolar Disorder. These will now be discussed with reference to three key areas, the individual, their family and environmental factors. The psychological perspective would highlight the potential causal factors which relate to the individual sufferer themselves. Factors such as substance abuse and alcoholism have been linked with Bipolar Disorder (Winokur et al 1996). A number of psychological issues could under-pin such behaviour and these need to be addressed if a comprehensive understanding of Bipolar Disorder is to be gained. For example, the individual may not be equipped with sufficient coping skills or an ability to manage stress which in turn leads to their use of alcohol or drugs which then contributes to their Bipolar Disorder. The psychological perspective emphasises the influence of factors relating to the individual’s characteristics which cause or contribute to their illness. The second key area which relates to the psychosocial perspective is the family. The interactions between family members during a person’s developmental years appears to have a significant impact on the onset of Bipolar Disorder. Research has been conducted which has assessed what sufferers of Bipolar Disorder view as the main causes of their illness. Lish et al (1994) found that sufferers believe that their illness started in their childhood. The way in which parents act towards a child in forming their behavioural patterns is an important consideration. This is of particular importance when the parents themselves suffer with Bipolar Disorder (Grigoroiu-Serbanescu et al 1989). The child will observe the behaviour of their parents and this in turn will play a significant part in developing their behaviour in given situations. The learning of social skills and the interactions which take place within the family are viewed by those from a psychosocial perspective to be an import ant consideration in understanding the causes of Bipolar Disorder. As well as family related issues, general environmental factors are also advocated by the psychosocial perspective as a cause of Bipolar Disorder (Pike Plomin 1996). The social environment in which an individual lives and the events which they experience may contribute to the development of their illness. The social support which a person has when they are first experiencing a manic or depressive mood can significantly impact the course of the mood and potentially facilitate the development of a more serious problem. Furthermore, the general lifestyle of the individual, and the social settings which this puts them in, will be another influencing factor. If they live or work in an environment which facilitates significant high and low periods then this could facilitate the onset of a psychotic symptom. Therefore, if an individual lives in an environment which encourages alcoholism, provides no real social support and incurs significant episodes of highs and lows, then the environment may lead to them suffering with Bipolar Disorder. Thus far the discussion has demonstrated that those coming from a psychosocial perspective would argue that individual, family and environmental factors all have a part to play in causing, and contributing to, Bipolar Disorder. The empirical evidence, however, for such assertions is somewhat limited and hence the argument exists mainly from a theoretical perspective. It is difficult to conduct experiments which control for all of the potentially confounding variables and because of the relevant ethical considerations involved. Research generally focuses on people with Bipolar Disorder and tries to identify the causes of their illness. Having said this, the relevant research which has taken place involving identical twins would lead one to conclude that psychological and sociological factors do merit consideration when assessing the onset of Bipolar Disorder. The remainder of this discussion will now address the treatment of Bipolar Disorder from a psychosocial perspective. Again the categories of the individual, the family and the environment will be used to structure the discussion. 3.3.3 TREATMENT OF BIPOLAR DISORDER Although Bipolar Disorder is a serious illness, it can be successfully treated (Sachs et al 2000). Due to the fact that the traditional medication-based approaches have significant side-effects (Vainionpaa et al 1999), and because they are not always fully effective, psychosocial treatments have been proposed. These approaches will now be discussed with reference to individual, family and environmental methods as these were the areas addressed in terms of the causes of Bipolar Disorder. Fundamentally based on psychological principles, therapy has been offered as a possible treatment for Bipolar Disorder. For example, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) has been used to treat mild episodes of depression and post-manic dysphoria (Leahy Beck 1988). This approach aims to foster an improvement in the patient’s coping skills, self control technique and on their ability to manage stress. Also the patient can be taught useful strategies such as combining the taking of medication with a routine task. In evaluating this approach Satterfield (1999) used an empirical case study to demonstrate that it can enhance the treatment of rapid cycling. Therefore, CBT is a possible approach for treating the individual factors associated with Bipolar Disorder. An alternative individual approach comes from the psychodynamic perspective. It focuses on abandonment fears, repressed rage, manic defences and the need for engagement through the testing of limits. Limited evaluations of this approach have been made. Early research indicated that there are some long term benefits (Scott 1963). However, this research only used a small sample and hence the extent to which these findings can be generalised is questionable. Much of the research in this area involves single case studies (Kestenbaum Kron 1987). Therefore this approach is predominantly supported by theory rather than sound scientific research. Therefore therapy based on a psychological perspective has been advocated as a method by which individual factors can be addressed. Indeed the Expert Consensus Guideline Series (1996) recommended the use of psychotherapy alongside medication so that a more comprehensive treatment programme can be achieved. Conflict within the family can result from the patient’s desire for the situation to ‘go back to normal’ after an episode, their dependency on a family member for medication and because the family become concerned at the first signs of anger or sadness. Such conflicts can be addressed with therapeutic programmes like that which is proposed by Miklowitz Goldstein (1990). Family Focussed Therapy (FFT) involves assessing and educating the family as well as providing training in communication and problem-solving skills. Evaluations of this approach for treating Bipolar Disorder have shown that it significantly reduces relapse rates whilst improving communication (Miklowitz et al 2000). A key element of approaches within this field is education. Information and hence improved knowledge can help to enhance the patient’s illness management skills. Spouses, other family members and care-givers all need to be involved within this process. Honig et al (1997) found t hat a psycho-educational family approach can reduce relapse rates, increase social support and significantly improve a family’s expression of their emotions. Therefore Family Therapy can be used to help address some of the causes of manic and depressive episodes whilst also improving the family’s ability to cope with them if and when they do occur. The third and final area of treatments of Bipolar Disorder from a psychosocial perspective concerns environmental factors. By manipulating the environment, it should be possible to both reduce the number of manic or depressive episodes whilst also reducing the negative consequences of them should they happen. For example, Frank et al (2000) proposed Social Rhythms Training. This aims to stabilise a patient’s social rhythms, such as sleeping patterns, and their patterns of behaviour. It also aims to identify the factors which disrupt a person’s social rhythms. Similarly, Wehr et al (1998) advocates the creation of an environment which facilitates regular and healthy sleepi

What Do We Really Know About The Beginning Of Time? Essay -- Essays Pa

What Do We Really Know About The Beginning Of Time? Most people take for granted important discoveries, such as the Big Bang. It is widely accepted that the Big Bang created the universe, and while most people can explain the basic theory behind it, little else is common knowledge. Calvin of Calvin and Hobbes called it â€Å"The Horrendous Space Kablooie,† but many people do not grasp the enormous concept (Milne). How exactly do you prove how time began? A writer for Scientific American put this subject into perspective: â€Å"If you’re religious, this is like looking at God† (Milne). Cosmology is the study of the universe, its workings, how it was made, and what it will become. How the universe began has always been a wonder to humans. One of the first widely accepted theories in the 1700s, called infinite expanse, explained that the universe is infinite, with no beginning and no end. This theory had more to do with the philosophy of the time than actual science; however, there was no way to prove or disprove the theory. It was not until the 1920s that Edwin Hubble was able to study the deep sky, objects very faint and far away. In 1929, Hubble proved that stars are clumped in large galaxies, and many galaxies exist beyond our own in a universe that takes light billions of years to travel across. Not only did Hubble prove that galaxies exist, but by observing redshifts (a shift toward red in the visual spectrum of light because of the receding effect of an object) also proved that the galaxies were getting farther apart. Shortly after Hubble’s discovery, a Belgian priest and mathematics teacher by the name of Georges Lemaitre published his own theory that was based off of Hubble’s observations. He said that if the galaxies in the u... ... as many more significant discoveries are bound to happen in the near future that will help clear up the situation (Milne). It is certainly an age for discovery, and understanding newly published discoveries does not require a doctorate. While astrophysics is not everyday, practical knowledge, it can be very impressive to undersand and explain to others how time began. Works Cited â€Å"Big Bang Theory.† Encarta Encyclopedia Standard 2004. 2003 PC ed. Glanz, James. â€Å"Accelerating the Cosmos.† Astronomy.com. 2001. 25 Mar. 2004. Lacey, Jake. â€Å"Milky Way III.† http://members.cox.net/llacey14/jakestars.html. 2003. 29 Mar. 2004. Milne, Rich. â€Å"The Origin Of The Universe.† http://www.leaderu.com/orgs/probe/docs/origuniv.html. 1995. 25 Mar. 2004. Schomaker, William. â€Å"Physicists Put Brakes on Accelerating Universe Theory.† Astronomy.com. 2002. 25 Mar. 2004.

How two businesses are organised Essay

In this assignment I will be discussing about how two businesses are organised. The two businesses that I will be discussing about is BHP Billiton and Battersea Dogs and Cats home. The first business that I will be discussing about is BHP Billiton and how they have organised their business.BHP Billiton is an Anglo-Australian multinational mining, metals and petroleum company headquarter in Melbourne. BHP Billiton is the world’s largest mining company measured by 2013 revenue. It was created in 2001 through the merger of the Australian Broken Hill Proprietary Company Limited. The first way BHP Billiton is divided into is within the function. Within BHP Billiton the function is the Chief Development Officer who is in charge of development of the company and researches about countries that BHP Billiton has not mined in. chief Financial Officer who is in charge of finance of the business. The Chief Legal Counsel is the person is who is responsible for the legal issue within the business; this is done by meeting the legal requirements for a particular business. The Group Vice President Human Resources is responsible for the people management within a business. Vice President and Chief Marketing Officer is the person who is responsible within making sure that the business meets their customer needs, they also make sure that they also meet their business needs, this is done by making sure the business has the right quality of product, the price of the product and also by advertising their product to attract the target market which are the customers. BHP Billiton is organised by the product group. These roles consist of the President Petroleum, this is the person who is responsible for all the extraction of the petroleum, the Senior Minerals Executive, and this is the person who is responsible for all the minerals collected from the mining. President Energy Coal, this is the person who is responsible for collecting the coal. President Carbon Steel Materials, this is person who is responsible for making of the carbon steel. The second business that I will be discussing about is Battersea Dogs and Cats home is the United Kingdom’s oldest and most famous home for dogs and  cat and is situated in the Battersea area of London. It is financed by voluntary donations with an income of almost  £12.2million in 2010. The main aim of the business is to reunite dogs and cats with their owners and work in a community to educate people about responsibility of ownership. Battersea Dogs and Cats home has only one organised structure which is function also known as department, there is 9 functions within this organisation. This consist of Director of Education and Events, this is the person who is responsible for doing events for the business for the company to have the attention and awareness for people to donate. This is also done by going into schools to educate kids about on how to take care of animals and the responsibility they will have for the animal. Director of Communications, this is the person in the company who is responsible for the communication of media contact for the organisation and giving a better value of the company. Director of Finance is the person who is responsible for making sure that all the donations that come in for the business are recorded and kept safe, they also make decision for the finance of the business and how it should be dealt with. Director of Human Resources is the person who is responsible for the person’s management within the business. Director of Estates and Facilities, this is the person who is responsible for making sure that the business has the right facilities for the business that will be able to take care of the animals. Director of Fundraising, this is the person who is responsible for arranging fundraising events so that people can donate money for the business. Director of Operations (Customer Service), this is person who is responsible for customer complaints and enquires. Director of Operations (Animal Welfare) this is the person who is responsible for the welfare of the animal and also the safety of the animal. Director of Veterinary Services, this is the person who is responsible for the medical and health of the animal. The Line of Control is an individual who is responsible for the line of management. BHP Billiton has used the line of manager. For example BHP Billiton have done this by having the ‘Top down’ approach this means that the manager of the company such as the CEO are at the top are responsible for everyone who works within the business. This is done by making sure that all the staffs is doing the right job and if everything is up to high standard. The line of control for Battersea Dogs and Cats Home has four lines of control and 18 spans of control. The  staff and employees report to the managers and the managers will report to the director. Battersea Dogs and Cats Home also have a 3 layer structure, this works by the Chief Executive informing the directors on what they have to do for the business and then they will pass on the information to the managers so that they are then able to pass on to their staffs and volunteers. Within these two businesses I will be looking at those four different ways in dividing work within the organisation which are the following: 1) Function 2) Geographical location 3) Product groups 4) Types of customers The first organisational structure is function. This is when the people who in the department are divided up what their purpose in the company are, for example marketing. The second organisational structure is geographical location, this is the people who work in the company are divided up by where they work, or what area of the country/world they look after. The third organisational structure is product groups, this is the people who work for the company are divided up by what they produce or look after in the company. The four and last organisational structure is type of customers, this is the people who work in the company are divided up by which type of customers their job related for, for example individual customers or business customers. Within these four organisational structure BHP Billiton only two of these structures. The first structure is Function; this is the area that is responsible for a particular job in the department such as finance, development officers, petroleum, and legal counsel, vice president of Human Resources, Vice President of Marketing, President of Metals and Carbon Steel Materials. However Battersea Dogs and Cats Home only have one of these organisational structures. The type of organisational structure they have is function but have are divided into nine groups, this is the director of communications, Director of Education and Events, Director of Finance, Director of Estate and Facilities, Director of Human Resources, Director of Fundraising, Director of Operations (Animal Welfare) and Director of Operations (Customer Service). BHP Billiton Chart for their Business BHP Billiton has this hierarchy structure to present their business as they have a more of a wider range of employees that work within departments and businesses. The charts show us how each employee works in the business and what their job role is. Battersea Dogs and Cats home chart for their Business Battersea Dogs and Cats Home have used a more of a flat structure to represent their business. The organisational structure that has been used to represent this chart is function and also has been used to be divided in nine groups which have been shown in the chart. Span of Control: A span of control is the number of people who report to one manager in a hierarchy. The span of control has been used in each business, for example the span of control has been used in BHP Billiton as they only have 5 span of control which has different departments reporting to the CEO or Deputy CEO, this is why in the hierarchy it shows a structure of how the role has been played and has a wider range. The span of control has also been used in Battersea Dogs and Cats Home as the structure consist of 18 spans of control but has been divided into 9 departments with the staff and volunteer which report to the manager and inform about how the business is doing. Functional Areas: BHP Billiton Production/operations function: The production functional area is the part of a business where goods are produced, manufactured or assembled. Some businesses especially those that don’t product good but instead provide services, call this area ‘operations’. BHP Billiton does this by making sure that staff is working effectively to meet their production service targets. They can also do this by making sure their product is up to date and are high standard of good quality so that they are able to be sold to customers around the world. Marketing Function: The marketing function area is the part of the business that identified and tries to meet customer’s needs. They will also try and ensure their business  has the product, price and advertising that will appeal to their target customers. BHP Billiton can do this by carrying put market research to find out what new products customer wants. They can also do this by making sure they reach their target markets and to achieve their aim. Human Resources: The Human Resources functional area is responsible for people management in a business. This can be done by making policies about people in the business for example about the workplace safety. BHP Billiton can do this by recruit employees that are related to a particular job role and to make sure that the health and safety for staff is always there. Purchasing: The purchasing functional area is the part of the business that is responsible for buying all of the supplies the business needs to run effectively. This includes office supplies like paper and stationary but also the raw materials used for production. This can be done by buying goods for the company. BHP Billiton can do this by finding suppliers who are reliable and can supply good quality. Sales: The sales of functional area are the part of a business that gets customers to buy or consume what the business produces. In some businesses, the sales functional area is a part of the marketing functional area. Marketing staff find out what customers wants. Sales staff needs to get customers to buy the product. BHP Billiton can do this by managing the sales team making sure that their product are being sole and to also develop strong positive relationship with customers. Finance: The finance functional area is responsible for keeping records of financial transaction and giving managers the information they need to make decisions about the business. It is important that managers are aware of the financial situation of the business so that they can consider the effects decisions they will make will have on the business finance. BHP Billiton can do this by producing annual account statements and providing financial information to management. Customer service: The customer service functional area is the part of the business that looks  after customer enquiries, concerns and complaints. BHP Billiton can do this by answering customer’s enquiries and complaint they have about the business. Battersea Dogs and Cats Home Functional Areas: Battersea Dogs and Cat Home have only six functional areas, this includes; Human Resources, Customer Service, Sales, Finance, Marketing and Production/Operation. Human Resources: The human resources functional area is responsible for people management in a business they make policies and rules about the business for the people, for example the health and safety and to help recruit people into the business. Battersea Dogs and Cats Home can run induction training for all new volunteers and also staff training to update product knowledge about new products in the shop. Finance: The finance functional area is responsible for keeping records of financial transaction ad providing information to managers to make decisions about the business. This is important for managers to be aware of their financial records. For example with Battersea Dogs and Cats Home is they provide the Chief Executive with cash flow statements showing donation income and expenses and to also provide the CEO with annual revenue and sales data. Customer Service: Customer service functional area is the part of the business area that looks after customer enquiries, concerns and complaints. Battersea Dogs and Cats Home will do this by having a customer service for customers to ask any question they want about the business and to also give complaints and concerns about the business Production/Operations function: The production functional area is part of the business where goods are produced, manufactured or assembled. Staffs are required to meet their production or service targets. Some businesses that do not produce goods but instead provide services, is called ‘operations’. Battersea Dogs and Cats Home will make sure that products are in stock for the Battersea shop and the online shop. Sales: The sales functional area is part of the business that gets customers to buy or consume what the business produces. In some businesses, the sales functional area is part of the marketing functional area. Marketing staff find out what customers want sales needs to persuade customers in to buying their products. In non-profit voluntary organisations (like charities) that provide their products or services for free, there is no need for sales functions area, to convince donors to donate to organisation. Battersea Dogs and Cat Home will do this by having volunteers work for their business and customers that donate for the business. Marketing Function: The marketing functional area is the part of the business that identifies and tries to meet customer needs. They will also try and ensure their business has the product, price and advertising that will appeal to their target customers. Battersea Dogs and Cats Home will do this by speaking at a local secondary school to encourage the student council to raise money and to also produce leaflets explaining how people can donate at home. Explain each functional area role in the business and how it helps to achieve their aims and objective: BHP Billiton: Human resources at BHP Billiton will include by running induction training for all new staff and staff training to update product knowledge about new products in the shop. The managers will do this by giving the same aim to all the staff and to make sure they are all doing their job right. The objective and aim of Human resources for BHP Billiton is to make sure they make profit for their business as the will also achieve their business aim. Customer service at BHP Billiton will include answeringcustomer’s enquiries and customer complaints and services. They use customer service surveys to find out what customers think of service in the shop. The objective and aim of customer service at BHP Billiton is to make sure they answer customer enquiries and complaint and to make sure they provide this service to customers. Finance at BHP Billiton is to keep up to date with their financial profit and how much they are making. They will provide the Chief Executive with cash flow statements showing donation income and expenses and to also provide the CEO with annual revenue and sales data. The objective  and aim of BHP Billiton with finance is that they will keep records of all the profits they are making and having a cash flow chart to show how much they have progressed throughout the year. Marketing at BHP Billiton is to try and meet their customer needs and will also make sure their business has the right product and price. They will also analyse data to identify and target customers. The objective and aim of BHP Billiton with marketing is that they will sell their product globally to customers and will market their products to other business to sell to customers in their shop. Production/Operation at BHP Billiton is where the goods are produced, manufactured or assembled. Staffs are required to meet their production or service targets, make sure raw materials and services are variable managing staff. Make sure that products are in stock for the BHP Billiton and the online shop. The objective and aim of BHP Billiton of production is to give good service to customers and to make sure the product of their service is high quality. Battersea Dogs and Cats Home: Human resources for Battersea Dogs and Cats Home will include staff training to update product knowledge about new products in the shop and to also run induction training for all new volunteers, they will also make sure that all animals have a shelter and are looked after properly. The aims and objectives of human resources is by making sure that every staff that works in the business knows what they are doing and are sure of what to do so that the business goes well. The aim of this is that they will be a good service for the customers when donating to the business. Customer service at Battersea Dogs and Cats Home is that they ae able to answer customer enquiries and complaints. This is by having good customer service towards the customers. To use customer service surveys to find out what customers think of service in the shop. The objective and aims of customers service is that they are able to have high standards of services for the customers so that they are able to give their en quiries to the business. The aim of having good customer service is that they will be able to have more customer awareness as they will improve their service with their opinion. Sales at Battersea Dogs and Cats Home is that customers get to buy what the business provides, this is also by having the organisation and raising money for charity. They can do this by setting up events to raise money and donate to  their business and the animal welfare. They can also do this by speaking at local secondary school to encourage the student council to raise money. The aims and objectives of Sales is that you are able to raise and donate money to the business. This will increase their profile around the UK. Finance at Battersea Dogs and Cats Home is that you can keep records of the business financial situations; they will also be able to see annual money that they are making every month and year. To also provide the Chief Executive with cash flow statements showing donation income and expenses. The aims and objectives of finance is that you are able to provide the CEO with annual revenue and data and also be able to keep records of all the donations made. The aim of sales with Battersea Dogs and Cats home is that to sell as many of their products that they can and to also make profit for their business. Marketing at Battersea Dogs and Cats Home tries to meet customer needs; they will produce promotional information to advertise what the business does and to produce leaflets explaining how people can donate at home. The aims and objectives of marketing is that the manager can analyse market to identify and target customers and to make sure the website is updated regularly to inform people about animals that are waiting for adoption. The aim of marketing with Battersea Dogs and Cats Home is that to market their product to customers by making their website look more attractive. Production/Operation, where goods are produced or assembled, with Battersea Dogs and Cats Home is that they make it easier for the customer to donate to the business. P4 – how organisational structure and strategic planning help BHP Billiton and The Battersea Dogs and Cats Home to achieve their purpose and aims. Strategic planning is the process executives undertake in order to make thoughtful decisions about their organisation mission, value and goals, and properly allocate resources to fulfil directives. A business aim is the goal a business wants to achieve. A primary aim for all business organisations is to add value and in the private sector this involves making a profit. More strategic aims include expansion, market leadership and brand building. A business objective is a detailed picture of a step you plan to take in order to achieve a stated aim. These need to be SMART in order for the business to know what progress it has made towards achieving the  objective. Mission/Purpose Statement for BHP Billiton: Mission statement: At BHP Billiton our objective is to be the company of choice – creating sustainable value for our shareholders, employees, contractors, suppliers, customers, business and host communities. We aspire to zero arm to people, our host communities and the environment and strive to achieve leading industry. Value: Sustainability – putting health and safety first, being environmentally responsible and supporting our communities. Integrity- doing what is right and doing what we say we will do. Respect – embracing openness, trust, teamwork, diversity and relationships that are mutually beneficial. .The aim of BHP Billiton is to create long-term value through the discovery, acquisition, development and marketing of natural resources. The three objectives of BHP Billiton: To own and operate large, long-life and low cost mines and minerals processing that produce a range of minerals for different customers around the world. To invest and develop large mineral deposits that of high quality that can create profit growth To market products to customers globally from to main marketing offices at The Hague in the Netherlands and Singapore. Mission/purpose statement of Battersea Dogs and Cats Home: Mission statement: We aim to never turn away a dog or cat in need of our help, caring for them until their owners or loving new homes can be found, no matter how long it takes. We are champions for, and supporters of, vulnerable dogs and cats, determined to create lasting changes for animals in our society. Value: We ae passionate about the welfare of dogs and cats, and all of our work is inspired by the needs of, and our love for animals. We have been working tirelessly to provide shelter for animals for over 150 years. We are one of the oldest animal charities in the world and the knowledge and experience we have gained has made us credible leaders in our field We deal with some of the most challenging situations that impact the lives of dogs and cats. We  seek to tackle problems at source by working actively with communities and wider society, challenging misconceptions and encouraging owners to take responsibility for their pets and treat animals humanely. We will not shy away from difficult issues. The aim of Battersea Dogs and Cats Homes is to develop and measure our standards of care and service and to expand our services to help more dogs and cats in need. Three objectives of Battersea Dogs and Cats Home: To expand their people so that more people are aware of their organisation To encourage more people to volunteer for their organisation To raise more money for their organisation Cascading objectives is the objective set on the top which flows down into departments to individuals. BHP Billiton: BHP Billiton would cascaded throughout their organisation by setting themselves to make as certain amount of metals bars therefore they would tell each department to make sure they make the metals within the certain time period. BHP Billiton focuses on increasing productions and reducing cost. They cascaded throughout their business by making a certain amount of profit each day with the products that they are selling. Battersea Dogs and Cats Home: Battersea Dogs and Cats Home would cascade throughout their organisation by setting an aim of how much money has been donated to them and how much dogs and cats they will want to sell every month. They would cascade by fundraising money into their business. SMART objectives: All businesses need to set objectives, objectives are important they focus organisation. Businesses that have specific aims are usually more successful than those that don’t; because a business with objectives knows what it is trying to achieve. SMART TARGETS: Specific – Measurable – Achievable – Realistic and Time Scaled The benefits for smart objectives are to give a target to aim to, ensuring that all marketing actions and efforts are focused on attaining the objective instead of being inefficiently used. They also give businesses and their staff a sense of direction, a glimpse of where they’re going to. This will benefit businesses as they are able to set themselves a goal. The organisational structure for each business helps them achieve their purpose and aims are by making sure that they reach their goals and to reach the purpose of their business. For BHP Billiton the organisational structure would be by making sure that managers employee people who understand their role within the company. One method that BHP Billiton can use for their organisational structure is by setting up departments covering the four main areas of business activity such as, the finance, human resources, marketing and operations. BHP Billiton also organise their business with organisation chars, these diagrams that show internal structure of the business. They make it easy to identify the specific roles and responsibilities. Battersea Dogs and Cats Home use organisational structure to help them achieve their purpose and aims is by making sure that all their employees are doing the entire right job and are serving their customers in the right way. To reach their aims they will give each employee a specific job roles and responsibilities. A method that Battersea Dogs and Cats Homes can use to organise their business is by having different functions so that their business is organised in a way that could be understood. It is important for a business organisation to plan strategic aims and objectives. This is because the aims and objectives are the ‘ends’ that an organisation seeks to achieve. It then has to decide the means it will use to achieve those ends draw up a plan and devise strategy. Many organisations have general or overall aims which they can break down into specific objectives, or targets. By setting aims and objectives, companies give themselves a sense of purpose  and direction. This will provide a framework around which creates their plans. With a particular plan in place, the company will then be able to set particular targets and monitors its progress towards reaching them. The aims of both business are different as they both try to achieve different aims such as BHP Billiton try to achieve their aim by producing more goods such as metal and mining. Whereas, Battersea Dogs and Cats Home achieve their aim by helping animals have a home and are safe. Both of these businesses are different as they have different ownerships and purpose within their business.

Community Corrections Is Vital For The Safety Of The...

Community corrections are vital in ensuring and assuring the safety of the community by rehabilitating the low-risk offenders allowing cycle of re-offending to be broken and the rate of imprisonment to be lowered. Community corrections involve managing an offender’s life in the community through constant supervision and reporting to their corrections officer and, also court ordered unpaid community service and rehabilitation programs to divert their attention to re-offend, rather than throwing them into the prison system for a low-risk crime. The question however is whether the correction services are a success in minimising the re-offending and rehabilitating the offenders once let back into society. In the last 40 years or so, community corrections have become a substantial component of the correctional service system (White and Perrone, 2010). 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